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Introduction The era known as the Industrial Revolution was a period in which fundamental changes occurred in agriculture, textile and metal manufacture, transportation, economic policies and the social structure in England. This period is appropriately labeled “revolution,” for it thoroughly destroyed the old manner of doing things; yet the term is simultaneously inappropriate, for it connotes abrupt change. The changes that occurred during this period (1760-1850), in fact, occurred gradually. The year 1760 is generally accepted as the “eve” of the Industrial Revolution. In reality, this eve began more than two centuries before this date. The late 18th century and the early l9th century brought to fruition the ideas and discoveries of those who had long passed on, such as, Galileo, Bacon, Descartes and others. Advances in agricultural techniques and practices resulted in an increased supply of food and raw materials, changes in industrial organization and new technology resulted in increased production, efficiency and profits, and the increase in commerce, foreign and domestic, were all conditions which promoted the advent of the Industrial Revolution. Many of these conditions were so closely interrelated that increased activity in one spurred an increase in activity in another. Further, this interdependence of conditions creates a problem when one attempts to delineate them for the purpose of analysis in the classroom. Therefore, it is imperative that the reader be acutely aware of this when reading the following material. The narrative portion of this unit is intended for the teacher’s use as a guide to teaching about this subject. It does not purport to include all that is needed to teach about the Industrial Revolution. It does provide a basis for teaching about the subject, leaving room for the teacher to maneuver as his/her style of teaching permits. One manner of capitalizing on any shortcomings in this material is to design individual or small group student activities which will enhance their study skills (reference materials, library use, research reports, etc.), while at the same time locating specific information. Also included are suggestions for utilizing this material in class. In the final analysis it is the teacher who will determine the manner in which this material is used, so it is his/her’s to modify as deemed necessary.

//Agricultural Changes [[image:31.jpg]] //
Agriculture occupied a prominent position in the English way of life of this period. Not only was its importance rooted in the subsistence of the population, but agriculture was an indispensable source of raw materials for the textile industry. Wool and cotton production for the manufacture of cloth increased in each successive year, as did the yield of food crops. The improved yield of the agricultural sector can be attributed to the enclosure movement and to improved techniques and practices developed during this period. A common practice in early agriculture was to allow the land to lie fallow after it had been exhausted through cultivation. Later it was discovered that the cultivation of clover and other legumes would help to restore the fertility of the soil. The improved yields also increased the amount of food available to sustain livestock through the winter. This increased the size of herds for meat on the table and allowed farmers to begin with larger herds in the spring than they had previously. Other advances in agriculture included the use of sturdier farm implements fashioned from metal. Up until this period most farming implements were made entirely out of wood. We do not find much technical innovation beyond the slight improvements made on existing implements. We do find increased energy being placed into the breeding of livestock, control of insects, improved irrigation and farming methods, developing new crops and the use of horsepower in the fields to replace oxen as a source of power. These changes which have occurred in agriculture made it possible to feed all of the people that were attracted to the industrial centers as factory workers. By providing enough food to sustain an adequate work force, England was preparing the way for expansion of the economy and industry. A strategy which may be employed to promote the students’ understanding of the changes that have occurred in agriculture during the period of this unit, and from this period to today’s modern farms, is to start with the present and work back in time to the period we are studying. Students may participate in an informative and interesting discussion centered around today’s farming methods and machinery. Classroom activities could also center about constructing a chart which lists farming methods in pre-industrial revolution times, during the industrial revolution and today. Also, activities could be centered around having students write letters to manufacturers of farm machinery, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, or other farm-related concerns (e.g., farm museums). In 18th century England, the enclosure of common village fields into individual landholdings, or the division of unproductive land into private property was the first significant change to occur. This concentrated the ownership of the land into the hands of a few, and made it possible to institute improved farming techniques on a wider scale. Students may engage in a debate over the question of enclosure, concerning its effect on the rural poor. Historians are not in complete agreement on the effects of enclosure on the poor, some arguing that it contributed to swelling the numbers of poor, while others argue that their plight was only marginally related to the enclosure movement. An excellent resource for the teacher’s use in this section is Chapter Seven of E. P. Thompson’s book, //The Making of the English Working Class//.

James Watt- Scottish inventor and mechanical engineerwhose improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both the Kingdom of Britain and the world.

Child labour

The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase, but the chance of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the industrial revolution (although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly). There was still limited opportunity for education, and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.Child labour had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders.Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines and textile factories and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child labourers; however, child labour remained in Europe and the United States up to the 20th century. By 1900, there were 1.7 million child labourers reported in American industry under the age of fifteen.


 * # **Patterns of industrialization**
 * 1) Foundations of industrialization
 * 2) Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain
 * 3) Shift from wood to coal in eighteenth century; deforestation caused wood shortages
 * 4) Abundant, accessible coal reserves in Britain
 * 5) Overseas colonies provided raw materials
 * 6) Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton
 * 7) Colonies also became markets for British manufactured goods
 * 8) Grain, timber, and beef shipped from United States to Britain after 1830
 * 9) Demand for cheap cotton spurred mechanization of cotton industry
 * 10) John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733
 * 11) Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule," 1779
 * 12) Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven power loom, 1785
 * 13) James Watt's steam engine, 1765
 * 14) Burned coal, which drove a piston, which turned a wheel
 * 15) Widespread use by 1800 meant increased productivity, cheaper prices
 * 16) Iron and steel also important industries, with continual refinement
 * 17) Coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal fuel
 * 18) Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger steel
 * 19) Transportation improved with steam engines and improved steel
 * 20) George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered locomotive, 1815
 * 21) Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-nineteenth century
 * 22) Railroads and steamships lowered transportation costs and created dense transportation networks
 * 23) The factory system
 * 24) The factory gradually replaced the putting-out system
 * 25) Factory system required division of labor; each worker performed a single task
 * 26) Required a high degree of coordination, work discipline, and close supervision
 * 27) Working conditions often harsh
 * 28) Workers lost status; not skilled, just wage earners
 * 29) Harsh work discipline, fast pace of work, frequent accidents
 * 30) Industrial protest
 * 31) Luddites struck against mills and destroyed machines, 1811 and 1816
 * 32) Fourteen Luddites hung in 1813, and the movement died
 * 33) The early spread of industrialization
 * 34) Industrialization in western Europe
 * 35) British industrial monopoly, 1750 to 1800, forbade immigration of skilled workers
 * 36) Napoleon abolished internal trade barriers in western Europe, dismantled guilds
 * 37) Belgium and France moved toward industrialization by mid-nineteenth century
 * 38) After German unification, Bismarck sponsored heavy industry, arms, shipping
 * 39) Industrialization in North America slow to start, few laborers, little capital
 * 40) British craftsmen started cotton textile industry in New England in 1820s
 * 41) Heavy iron and steel industries in 1870s
 * 42) Rail networks developed in 1860s; integrated various regions of United States
 * 43) Industrial capitalism
 * 44) Mass production provided cheaper goods
 * 45) Eli Whitney promoted mass production of interchangeable parts for firearms
 * 46) Later (1913), Henry Ford introduced assembly line to automobile production
 * 47) Industrialization expensive; required large capital investment
 * 48) Encouraged organization of large-scale corporations with hundreds of investors
 * 49) New laws protected investors from liability
 * 50) Monopolies, trusts, and cartels: competitive associations
 * 51) Vertical organization: Rockefeller's Standard Oil Co.
 * 52) Horizontal organization (or cartel): IG Farben, world's largest chemical company
 * 53) **Industrial society**
 * 54) The fruits of industry
 * 55) Population growth
 * 56) Industrialization raised material standards of living
 * 57) Populations of Europe and America rose sharply from 1700 to 1900
 * 58) Better diets and improved sanitation reduced death rate of adults and children
 * 59) Demographic transition: population change typical of industrialized countries
 * 60) Pattern of declining birthrate in response to declining mortality
 * 61) Voluntary birth control through contraception
 * 62) Urbanization and migration
 * 63) Industrialization drew migrants from countryside to urban centers
 * 64) By 1900, 50 percent of population of industrialized countries lived in towns
 * 65) By 1900, more than 150 cities with over one hundred thousand people in Europe and North America
 * 66) Urban problems: shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water supply
 * 67) By the late nineteenth century, governments passed building codes, built sewer systems
 * 68) Transcontinental migration: some workers sought opportunities abroad
 * 69) 1800-1920, 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America
 * 70) Fled: famine in Ireland, anti-Semitism in Russia, problems elsewhere
 * 71) Industry and society
 * 72) New social classes created by industrialization
 * 73) Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth
 * 74) Middle class: managers, accountants, other professionals
 * 75) Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable
 * 76) Dramatic changes to the industrial family
 * 77) Sharp distinction between work and family life, worked long hours outside home
 * 78) Family members led increasingly separate lives
 * 79) Men gained increased stature and responsibility in industrial age
 * 80) Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers
 * 81) Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic
 * 82) Imposed these values on working-class men
 * 83) Workers often resisted work discipline
 * 84) Working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work
 * 85) Opportunities for women narrowed by industrialization
 * 86) Working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories
 * 87) Middle-class women expected to care for home and children
 * 88) Increased opportunities for women to work in domestic service
 * 89) Many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family support
 * 90) 1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor
 * 91) 1881, primary education became mandatory in England
 * 92) The socialist challenge
 * 93) Utopian socialists: Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers
 * 94) Established model communities based on principle of equality
 * 95) Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children
 * 96) Marx (1818-1883) and Engels (1820-1895), leading nineteenth-century socialists
 * 97) Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive
 * 98) Critique of industrial capitalism
 * 99) Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class
 * 100) State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class
 * 101) //The Communist Manifesto//, 1848
 * 102) Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead communist revolution
 * 103) "Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism
 * 104) Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society
 * 105) Ideas dominated European and international socialism throughout nineteenth century
 * 106) Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures
 * 107) Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children
 * 108) Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security
 * 109) Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers
 * 110) Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments
 * 111) Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence
 * 112) **Global effects of industrialization**
 * 113) The continuing spread of industrialization beyond Europe and North America
 * 114) Industrialization in Russia promoted by tsarist government
 * 115) Between 1860 and 1900, built thirty-five thousand miles of railroads
 * 116) Finance minister, Sergei Witte, promoted industry
 * 117) Witte oversaw the construction of the trans-Siberian railroad
 * 118) Reformed commercial law to protect industries and steamship companies
 * 119) Promoted nautical and engineering schools
 * 120) Encouraged foreign investors
 * 121) By 1900 Russia produced half the world's oil, also significant iron and armaments
 * 122) Industrialization in Japan also promoted by government
 * 123) Hired thousands of foreign experts to establish modern industries
 * 124) Created new industries; opened technical institutes and universities
 * 125) Government-owned businesses then sold to private entrepreneurs (//zaibatsu//)
 * 126) Japan was the most industrialized land in Asia by 1900
 * 127) The international division of labor
 * 128) Industrialization increased demand for raw materials
 * 129) Nonindustrialized societies became suppliers of raw materials
 * 130) Cotton from India, Egypt; rubber from Brazil, Malaya, and Congo River basin
 * 131) Economic development better in lands colonized by Europe
 * 132) High wages encouraged labor-saving technologies
 * 133) Canada, Argentina, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand: later industrialized
 * 134) Economic dependency more common in other countries
 * 135) Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and southeast Asia
 * 136) Foreign investors owned and controlled plantations and production
 * 137) Free-trade policy favored foreign products over domestic
 * 138) World divided into producers and consumers ||

And the villain still pursues her